[January 2014, source: Mercedes]
2014: Guide to a Technical Revolution
2014 introduces what is widely recognised as the biggest technical revolution since the first Formula One season in 1950. The significance of this change cannot be underestimated in terms of the challenges presented to both teams and drivers, as they embark upon a voyage into a relative unknown following eight years of stability from 2006 – 2013 in what has become known as the ‘V8 era’.
Of course, while probably the most far-reaching, this is far from being the first major upheaval in the history of Formula One. For decades, engineers have been pushing the boundaries of performance, extracting the absolute maximum from the technology at their disposal and exploring every avenue of development in the pursuit of automotive perfection, only to have their creations cast into the annals of racing history. Increasingly complex regulations always force fresh innovations to suit constantly evolving sporting and technical requirements.
The revolution of 2014 has subtly different roots, with rules written to encourage rather than restrict new technology. As the automotive industry increasingly demands more from less, efficiency and hybrid technologies become all the more relevant. As the pinnacle of automotive technology and performance, Formula One has a significant role to play in driving these technologies forward.
As fate would have it, this new dawn for Formula One coincides with a milestone year for Mercedes-Benz in our long and successful motorsport history. While all eyes look ahead to the coming season with an eager sense of anticipation, 2014 presents an equally powerful opportunity to reflect on a journey of competitive automotive activity that has spanned more than a century for the three-pointed star.
From iconic racing machines such as the W 25 and W 196 R to a host of legendary names including Rudolf Caracciola, Juan Manuel Fangio and Sir Stirling Moss, 2014 is rich in landmark anniversaries in the Mercedes motorsport story, as the latest generation aims to replicate the impeccable standards of success established by the Silver Arrows in years gone by.
Through the course of the following pages, this rich history is thrust full-throttle into the here and now; its significance increasingly relevant in a milestone year for both Mercedes-Benz and Formula One. Beginning with this reflection before attempting to demystify the various challenges of – and solutions to – a complex new era for the sport, this guide serves not only as a handbook for the present, but as a tribute to the past.
On 22 July 1894, just eight years after the automobile‘s invention, a ground-breaking city-to-city motoring competition entitled ‘Le Petit Journal Concours des Voitures sans Chevaux’ (or ‘Le Petit Journal Competition for Horseless Carriages’) would mark the very first foray into motorsport for two great marques that later rewrote motorsport history: Daimler and Benz.
Held in France – at the time considered the most advanced motorised nation – the event was organised by national newspaper ‘Le Petit Journal’ to boost circulation and stimulate interest in motoring. Despite organisers stopping short of classing the event as a race, this 127 km test of pioneering machinery is widely regarded as the world’s first competitive motor race; offering prizes to the top finishers utilising eligible machinery (defined as not requiring a travelling mechanic or technical assistant such as an engine stoker). Although earlier competitions had been held for automobiles powered by steam, the 1894 event was the first to attract a full field of vehicles; thereby acquiring its prestigious standing in motoring history.
The race itself was preceded by four days of vehicle exhibition and qualifying events, comprising interwoven routes staged around the city of Paris to determine worthy entrants for the main event. Over 100 entries were submitted – ranging from established manufacturers such as Peugeot to amateur enthusiasts – with 21 vehicles eventually taking to the start line; 13 of which were powered by internal combustion engines. With both Daimler and Benz represented, the event was to prove a landmark occasion in the history of both marques.
While the sole Benz entry was classified in the results – placing 14th at the hands of Emile Roger – it was a Panhard-Levassor which claimed equal first prize, powered by a twin cylinder, 30-degree vee petrol engine produced under licence from Gottlieb Daimler.
Although the car was not the first to cross the finish line, it shared the ‘5,000 francs du Petit Journal’ with the Peugeot brothers on the basis of the vehicles being those which came “closest to the ideal” and were “easy to use”.
It was from these humble beginnings – a seven-hour journey averaging speeds of marginally less than 20 km/h – that the success story of Mercedes-Benz in motorsport finds its roots, as both Daimler and Benz went on to play leading roles in the formative years of auto racing history from the late 1800s into the early 1900s.
Lyon, 4 July 1914; the final Grand Prix motor race before the First World War and a milestone in the motorsport history of Mercedes. Staged on public roads in the French region, the 37 km circuit hosted an epic 20-lap battle dominated by the Peugeot and Mercedes marques.
The event brought together the world’s elite in terms of both car and driver, with manufacturers having produced all-new machinery to comply with the mandatory maximum engine displacement of 4.5 litres. The solution produced by Mercedes would prove the class of the field, with its four cylinder unit revving to 3,000 rpm; almost one third higher than the standard at the time.
Featuring an aluminium crank case combined with steel cylinders, Mercedes introduced four-valve technology to its specially developed unit. While the valves themselves were exposed to allow for self-cooling, an advanced ignition system – two spark plugs on one side of each cylinder, one on the other – formed another unique element of what would prove a ground-breaking design.
With a crowd exceeding 300,000 spectators gathering to watch the pinnacle of automotive technology first hand, a field of 37 cars lined up to take their place in the contest. The time trial format saw competitors set off at 20 second intervals; each risking life and limb in their attempts to complete the 752 km race in the fastest time.
As the cars emerged from the opening corners, Max Saller took an early lead in his Mercedes before retiring with an engine failure on lap five; handing the top spot to Georges Boillot in the Peugeot. Behind the Frenchman, Mercedes drivers Christian Lautenschlager, Louis Wagner and Otto Salzer began to make great strides through the field; holding second, fourth and fifth at the halfway stage.
With just three laps remaining, Lautenschlager seized the lead with stable-mates Wagner and Salzer rapidly diminishing the advantage of Boillot and compatriot Jules Goux; passing the latter in the closing stages of the race. As Lautenschlager crossed the line to take an emphatic victory at an average speed of 65.665 km/h, late drama unfolded behind as Boillot retired with engine failure.
With Wagner and Salzer subsequently promoted a position apiece, the first all-Mercedes Grand Prix ‘podium’ was complete.
Birth of the Silver Arrows 80 Years Ago 1934
A new racing formula introduced in 1934 saw maximum weight for cars limited to 750 kg (less driver, tyres, fuel, fluids) and proved the catalyst for a step change in racing technology. So it proved for Mercedes-Benz, with the introduction of the W 25; a machine that made a dominant start to this golden era.
With its streamlined form and powerful engine, the W 25 set a new standard on the track. At first showing, the 3.5 litre, eight-cylinder, engine produced a mighty 354 hp, propelling the driver to speeds in the region of 300 km/h to the tune of a distinct whistling sound from the all-new supercharger. Hydraulic brakes, independent front and rear suspension, all coupled with a shell built around the engine made this the envy of the racing community. Similar to the Targa Florio – an event at which Mercedes had enjoyed spectacular success 10 years previously with Christian Werner – the Eifelrennen formed a landmark event in the automotive calendar; its challenging course weaving through the Eifel mountains, tackled by the latest high performance machines on both two and four wheels.
The new W 25 had been scheduled to race at the Avusrennen in late May, but was withdrawn after problems during practice. The 1934 instalment of the Eifelrennen – held on 3 June and staged on the Nürburgring circuit – gave birth to a story upon which the Mercedes-Benz brand built its reputation among motorsport’s elite.
As famously recounted by former Team Director Alfred Neubauer, legend has it that – on the eve of the race – the W 25 was found to be one kilogram overweight, and was thus stripped of its traditional white paint to match the regulations. After taking a dominant victory and setting a new lap record on its debut at the hands of Manfred von Brauchitsch, the W 25 continued to race with the silver shine of its bare aluminium bodywork and later acquired the title of ‘Silver Arrow’.
From this debut triumph, the success of the W 25 continued to build, with notable victories for Rudolf Caracciola and Luigi Fagioli in a variety of prestigious motor racing events across Europe; the German further underlining the car’s performance by setting a raft of speed records during winter of that same year. Taking a total of 16 victories in major competitions between 1934 and 1936, the W 25 cemented Mercedes-Benz at the pinnacle of international motorsport and the forefront of a golden age of Grand Prix motor racing.
Mercedes-Benz made a sensational return to Grand Prix racing in 1954, making its debut in the Formula One World Championship. The seeds were sown early in 1953, when the then Chairman of the Board of Management of Daimler-Benz AG – Fritz Könecke – set an ambitious target for the resumption of international racing activities; to capture both the Formula One and sports car World Championships the following year.
At the heart of the project was the W 196 R; an all-new concept with a raft of unique features that would combine to create an all-conquering racing machine. Two body shapes, three variants of wheelbase length, a lightweight frame and uncannily powerful brakes formed the base, while the engine – an eight cylinder, 2,496 cc, in-line configuration with direct injection – produced more than 250 hp; powering the W 196 R to top speeds in excess of 300 km/h.
The second European race of the 1954 Formula One season – the French Grand Prix – saw the new generation of Silver Arrows take the start for the first time. The W 196 R had posted the fastest time in practice, but it was during its racing debut on 4 July in Reims that the newly reformed squad would exceed all expectations. 1951 World Champion Juan Manuel Fangio lined up alongside Karl Kling and Hans Herrmann; the combination of both car and drivers proving an instant success.
Although Herrmann suffered an early retirement – having just set the then fastest lap of the race – Fangio and Kling dominated to claim an emphatic one-two finish; separated by just 0.1 seconds at the flag and with an advantage of a whole lap to the rest of the field. This sensational success had historic implications, for exactly 40 years earlier – on 4 July 1914 – Mercedes had won the French Grand Prix in Lyon.
In line with Fritz Könecke’s lofty ambitions, the 1954 World Championship title became the focus. After the streamlined car struggled comparatively around the twisty Silverstone circuit, Chief Engineer Rudolf Uhlenhaut readied the second variant of the W 196 R; a more classic ‘monoposto’ Grand Prix car design, featuring exposed wheels. From this point there would be no halt to the Mercedes charge, with at least one Silver Arrows driver on the podium at the remaining races of the season. Fangio claimed victory in the German, Swiss and Italian Grands Prix and placed third in Spain, while Herrmann finished third in Switzerland. Fangio‘s victory in Switzerland secured his second World Championship, with six victories from the nine race calendar.
After almost 40 years away from Grand Prix racing, Mercedes made its full Formula One return for the 1994 season; working in tandem with partner Ilmor to provide engines for the Sauber team. The Brixworth-built Mercedes-Benz 2175B V10 engine was tailor-made to suit the Sauber C13 and – in keeping with Mercedes tradition – broke the mould in its sole use of pneumatic valves as opposed to the more traditional spring valves; much like its ancestors of the 1950s with their revolutionary ‘Z-Drives’. The performance parameters of the unit were equally impressive.
Producing 745 hp in qualifying trim and 730 hp for racing, it propelled the C13 from 0-100 km/h in around 2.5 seconds, up to 200 km/h in six seconds and eventually on to a top speed – with appropriate gearing and wing settings – of over 330 km/h.
A mixed debut season saw the Sauber-Mercedes Formula One partnership take eighth place in the Constructors’ World Championship, with season-best finishes of fourth place for Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger. This marked the beginning of 20 continuous seasons in Formula One; a longer unbroken run than any major manufacturer apart from Ferrari. 2014 will be the 21st season of the modern era and promises to be the year when the modern Silver Arrows truly come of age…
Return to Action 20 Years Ago 1994
After almost 40 years away from Grand Prix racing, Mercedes made its full Formula One return for the 1994 season; working in tandem with partner Ilmor to provide engines for the Sauber team. The Brixworth-built Mercedes-Benz 2175B V10 engine was tailor-made to suit the Sauber C13 and – in keeping with Mercedes tradition – broke the mould in its sole use of pneumatic valves as opposed to the more traditional spring valves; much like its ancestors of the 1950s with their revolutionary ‘Z-Drives’.
The performance parameters of the unit were equally impressive. Producing 745 hp in qualifying trim and 730 hp for racing, it propelled the C13 from 0-100 km/h in around 2.5 seconds, up to 200 km/h in six seconds and eventually on to a top speed – with appropriate gearing and wing settings – of over 330 km/h.
A mixed debut season saw the Sauber-Mercedes Formula One partnership take eighth place in the Constructors’ World Championship, with season-best finishes of fourth place for Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger. This marked the beginning of 20 continuous seasons in Formula One; a longer unbroken run than any major manufacturer apart from Ferrari. 2014 will be the 21st season of the modern era and promises to be the year when the modern Silver Arrows truly come of age…
Formula One: a History of Innovation
The technical revolution of 2014 can be expressed in one simple phrase: the engine is no more, long live the Power Unit!
The idea of the engine as a standalone source of propulsion in Formula One was consigned to history several years ago through the introduction of KERS Hybrid power in 2009 and from 2011 through 2013. That said, the change for 2014 is altogether more far-reaching.
Out go the 2.4 litre, normally aspirated V8 power plants used over the past eight years. In comes a 1.6 litre, turbocharged V6 configuration with integrated Hybrid Energy Recovery System (ERS) to form the Power Unit. Each driver will be limited to a maximum of five Power Units per championship; three fewer than the allocation of eight last year.
This latest amendment to the powertrain regulations draws on a long line of similar – if sometimes less far-reaching – regulation changes dating back to the very beginnings of Formula One. In the early years of the competition from 1950 to 1953, 4.5 litre normally aspirated and 1.5 litre supercharged engines were permitted (although races were run to Formula 2 regulations in 1952 and 1953), before the introduction of a restricted 2.5 litre maximum capacity in 1954; the same year in which Mercedes first entered the championship with its W 196 R.
For 1961, maximum engine capacity was reduced to 1.5 litres, at the same time as the ‘rear-engine revolution’ took hold of chassis technology. Although initially underpowered, the units quickly grew in power output; eventually resulting in faster lap times than those seen under the previous regulations, and setting a trend which has continued throughout each era of Formula One powertrain technology to date.
With Formula One beginning to fall behind the more powerful sports cars in the mid-1960s, maximum engine capacity was raised to 3.0 litres with 1.5 litre compression charged formats also permitted. The 3.0 litre format was the norm until, in 1977, Renault exploited the opportunity of turbocharging for the first time. Where the French manufacturer led others soon followed, with every championship from 1983 to 1988 won by turbo power until the technology was outlawed at the end of the year.
The ban on pressure charging led to larger capacity engines being reintroduced as the sport’s governing body sought to allay fears that Formula One would once again fall behind sports cars as the world’s fastest racing category. Between 1989 and 1994, a mandatory 3.5 litre maximum capacity was set in place, before being reduced to 3.0 litres in 1995 as constant development of the unit began to produce ever-higher levels of power. The high-revving, high-pitched screaming era of the V10 was thus born; recognised by many as a peak of uniformly regulated Formula One engine performance.
Fast forward to 2006 and the latest incarnation of regulations – driven by the twin objectives of capping performance and controlling costs – introduced a 2.4 litre, normally aspirated V8 configuration of minimum 95 kg weight. The reduction in capacity was designed to give a power reduction of around 20% from the three litre engines, however constant development meant that performance consistently improved. Further restrictions introduced in 2007 saw engine specification homologated in order to contain development costs.
The new rules for 2014 mark a watershed for the sport of Formula One, with a set of regulations written to encourage and promote the development of advanced new technologies with which efficiency and performance will become synonymous. Where previous revolutions were prompted by engineers identifying and exploiting opportunities in the regulations, this step change in Power Unit technology has been applied across the board for 2014.
These rules position Formula One firmly at the cutting edge of automotive technology, redefining what’s possible in the field of engineering and actively encouraging innovation to stretch technological boundaries. In other words, exactly what Formula One has been about since its early days.
It was in 1886 that Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invented the automobile independently of one another. Then, in 1894, Daimler’s engine equipped the winning car in what is recognised as the first ever motor race, from Paris to Rouen. Seven years later, in March 1901, the first ever ‘Mercedes’ made its race debut at the Nice Speed Weeks.
Ever since the founding days of the company that later became Mercedes-Benz, technology and innovation have been at its core. It therefore comes as no surprise that predecessors of the technologies crucial to the 2014 Power Unit have played their part in the company’s illustrious motorsport history…
Based on technology developed for aircraft engines, the first pressure-charged Daimler racing cars – using superchargers rather than today’s turbocharger – made their debut in the 1922 Targa Florio. Having acknowledged an opportunity to participate in the ‘voiturette’ class, the 1.6 litre 6/25 hp supercharged car that had recently been unveiled in Berlin was modified to fit with the 1.5 litre regulations. So effective was the result that this engine would become the standard for all Mercedes-Benz racing engines into the 1950s.
The high performance supercharged engine was fitted to two cars taking the start at the Targa Florio where, despite a less than satisfying result, the 6/40/65 hp Mercedes established a line of supercharged racing cars which would achieve remarkable success and global recognition.
Just two years later, Chief Designer Ferdinand Porsche developed a car for the 1924 Targa Florio – based on the top-10 finishing Indianapolis 500 contender from 1923 – which took victory in the 540 km race. It was even painted red – rather than traditional German white – to avoid local spectators hurling rocks at it! The following year saw the last racing car produced by Daimler before its merger with Benz; the Model K Racing Touring Car. This powerful supercharged Mercedes was the foundation for the legendary family of supercharged cars from Mercedes-Benz; the S, SS, SSK and SSKL.
In similar fashion to the supercharger, the concept of direct fuel injection had its roots in aeronautical engineering before being proven for the road through Mercedes racing programmes. Daimler-Benz began experimenting with petrol injection in 1934, but it was not until the early 1950s that Daimler-Benz aircraft engineers Scherenberg and Göschel combined their expertise in the field to make use of direct injection for the forthcoming 300SL.
Despite the challenges of applying the concept to far smaller engines, the push to convert this aircraft technology to the road ultimately bore fruit, as the experimental engine outperformed its carburetted rivals in tests to become the motor of choice for 1953 Mercedes competition race cars. The 3.0 litre straight-six engine proved an instant hit; the 300SL taking second and fourth place in its first outing – the 1952 Mille Miglia – followed by victory at the Le Mans 24 Hours and the Eifelrennen. In keeping with the Mercedes tradition of using the race track as a proving ground, the 300SL went on to become the first production sports car to use direct injection.
After proving its worth in sports car racing, direct injection was naturally incorporated into the advanced design of the M 196 engine that powered both the W 196 R Formula One car to two World Championships and the 300 SLR to the 1955 world sportscar championship.
The term ‘KERS’ entered the world of Formula One in 2009, but the association between hybrid technology and motorsport stretches back over a century for Mercedes-Benz. The early experiments of Daimler chief engineer Wilhelm Maybach focused on combining the gasoline engine with alternative drive technologies in the early 1900s, but the company’s first true hybrid came from a chief engineer with an equally famous name: Ferdinand Porsche.
Porsche had already designed an electric motor for wheel hub installation in 1897, which was fitted to the Lohner-Porsche of 1900. Relying on the Lohner-Porsche system, the Mercedes Mixte employed a serial hybrid drive incorporating a gasoline engine and a dynamo that converted the energy of the engine into electric energy; subsequently supplying power to two wheel hub motors on the rear axle.
To demonstrate its performance, Porsche developed a Mixte race car before the end of 1907, with a 30/55 hp engine powering the generator and wheel hub motors that transferred the electric energy to the road. The car was scheduled to start the 1907 Taunus Race but was too badly damaged during practice to race. 102 years later, the Mercedes-Benz KERS Hybrid system powered Lewis Hamilton to the first ever Hybrid Formula One victory at the 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix.
The lessons learned during development of the highpower-density F1 KERS Hybrid flowed directly into the technology at the heart of the SLS AMG Coupé Electric Drive. The battery solution for the all-electric supercar was developed with Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains in Brixworth, delivered 740 hp as well as an incredible 1,000 Nm of torque and set a new benchmark for energy density; as well as a 7:56 record lap of the Nürburgring Nordschleife!
Brackley & Brixworth: A Unified Approach
When Mercedes-Benz returned to Formula One as a works constructor in 2010, it marked the first time that a Grand Prix Silver Arrow had raced in anger since 1955. Since then, the Silver Arrows have steadily grown in competitiveness, culminating in a second place finish in the 2013 Constructors’ Championship. But 2014 will mark another milestone: the debut of the first ground-up, all-new Silver Arrow since the W 196 R hit the track in 1954.
Ever since the announcement of the new powertrain regulations – and the confirmation of the 1.6 litre V6 turbo format in mid-2011 – it has been clear that the opportunities offered by an integrated approach to the new regulations would be significant. Separated by just 45 km, the groups at Brackley (home to the MERCEDES AMG PETRONAS Formula One Team) and Brixworth (headquarters of Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains) have worked hand in hand on the F1 W05 project since the very first meeting to determine the team’s solutions for the new powertrain regulations.
The result has been a fully integrated approach, focused not on horsepower or points of downforce, but maximising the lap time of the overall technical package in response to a set of revolutionary technological challenges. Each trade-off between Power Unit and aerodynamic performance has been discussed and debated in detail in order to find the optimum overall solution, with gains in packaging and integration enabled by this unified approach. Over the three year lead time for the ambitious 2014 project, these trade-offs have been fundamental to the final concept of the car.
The end product is the new F1 W05 and, at its heart, the PU106A Hybrid Power Unit. The F1 W05 is the most advanced racing machine ever built in Brackley, the PU106A Hybrid the most complex powertrain ever produced in Brixworth. And they are the product of a clear mentality: one group, on two sites, with the common goal of building a winning Silver Arrow.
V8 (2006 – 2013) V6 (2014)
Capacity 2,400cc V8 1,600cc V6
Fuel Mass Flow Unlimited Max 100 kg/hr
Admission Normally Aspirated Single-stage Compressor & Exhaust Turbine
Minimum Weight ICE = 95 kg, KERS = Unlimited Power Unit = 145 kg
KERS (2009, 2011-2013) ERS (2014)
Components MGU-K, MGU-K, MGU-H,
Power Electronics, Power Electronics,
Energy Store Energy Store
Power MGU-K, Max 60 kW MGU-K, Max 120 kW, MGU-H, Unlimited
Energy Input No Maximum Max 2 MJ per lap from MGU-K
Unlimited MJ per lap from MGU-H
Energy Output 400 kJ Max 4 MJ to MGU-K
Weight No Regulation ES between 20-25 kg,
(must be contained within Survival Cell)
In regulatory terms, the Power Unit comprises six different systems: the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K), Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H), Energy Store (ES), Turbocharger and the Control Electronics. The change in terminology reflects the fact that this new powertrain is far more than simply an Internal Combustion Engine. Where the previous V8 format utilised a KERS hybrid system which was effectively ‘bolted on’ to a pre-existing engine configuration, the Mercedes-Benz PU106A Hybrid has been designed from the outset with Hybrid systems integral to its operation.
The Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is the traditional, fuel-powered heart of the Power Unit; previously known simply as the engine. For 2014 this will take the form of a 1.6 litre, turbocharged V6 configuration, with direct fuel injection up to 500 bar of pressure.
Where the V8 engines could rev to 18,000 rpm, the ICE is limited to 15,000 rpm from 2014. This reduction in crankshaft rotational speed coupled with the reduction in engine capacity and number of cylinders, reduces the friction and thus increases the total efficiency of the Power Unit. This down-speeding, down-sizing approach is the key technological change at the heart of the ICE structure.
The turbocharger is an energy recovery device that uses waste exhaust energy to drive a single stage exhaust turbine that in turn drives a single stage compressor via a shaft, thereby increasing the pressure of the inlet charge (the air admitted to the engine for combustion). The increased pressure of the inlet charge offsets the reductions in engine capacity and RPM when compared to the V8, thus enabling high power delivery from a down-speeded, down-sized engine. The turbocharger is the key system for increasing the efficiency of the ICE.
For 2014, the notion of hybrid energy recovery has shed a letter (KERS has become ERS) but become significantly more sophisticated. Energy can still be recovered and deployed to the rear axle via a Motor Generator Unit (MGU), however this is now termed MGU-K (for ‘Kinetic’) and is permitted twice the maximum power of the 2013 motor (120 kW or 161 hp, instead of 60 kW or 80.5 hp). It may recover five times more energy per lap (2 MJ) and deploy 10 times as much (4 MJ) compared to its 2013 equivalent, equating to over 30 seconds per lap at full power. The rest of the energy is recovered by the MGU-H (for ‘Heat’); an electrical machine connected to the turbocharger.
Where the V8 offered one possible ‘energy journey’ to improve efficiency via KERS, there are up to seven different efficiency enhancing energy journeys in the ERS system.
The Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K) has double the power capability of the previously used KERS motors and operates in an identical way. Some of the kinetic energy that would normally be dissipated by the rear brakes under braking is converted into elec trical energy and stored in the Energy Store. Then, when the car accelerates, energy stored in the Energy Store is delivered to the MGU-K which provides an additional boost up to a maximum power of 120 kW (approximately 160 hp) to the rear axle for over 30 seconds per lap.
The Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H) is a new electrical machine that is directly coupled to the turbocharger shaft. Waste exhaust energy that is in excess of that required to drive the compressor can be recovered by the turbine, harvested by the MGU-H, converted into electrical energy and stored in the Energy Store. Where the MGU-K is limited to recovering 2 MJ of energy per lap, there is no limit placed on the MGU-H. This recovered energy can be used to power the MGU-K when accelerating, or can be used to power the MGU-H in order to accelerate the turbocharger, thus helping to eliminate ‘turbo lag’. This new technology increases the efficiency of the Power Unit and most significantly provides a method to ensure good driveability from a boosted, down-sized engine.
The Energy Store (ES) does exactly what it says on the tin; storing the energy harvested from the two Motor Generator Units (MGUs) for deployment back into those same systems. It is capped in terms of maximum and minimum weight: the maximum (25 kg) setting engineers an aggressive target, while the minimum (20 kg) means weight reduction will not be chased at all costs.
A joule (J) is a unit of energy; (kinetic, heat, mechanical, electrical, etc.) A kilojoule (kJ) is equal to one thousand joules, whilst a megajoule (MJ) represents one million joules. To put this into context, kJ is a unit often used to describe the energy present in nutritional goods, while 1 MJ represents the approximate kinetic energy of a one-tonne vehicle travelling at 160 km/h.
Meanwhile, a watt (W) is a unit of power that quantifies a rate of energy flow; with a kilowatt (kW) equal to one thousand watts. This unit is commonly used to express the power output of an engine, where 1 kW is equal to 1.34 hp.
In years gone by, the term efficiency may have appeared at odds with the ethos of Formula One; a conservative contrast to the ‘flat-out’ image of the sport. For 2014 however, that perception will change fundamentally. Put simply, efficiency now equals performance.
Where the power of a normally aspirated engine was defined by the amount of air that could be put through it, Power Unit performance is now defined by the amount of fuel available to each competitor. The driver who can extract the most performance from the available 100 kg of fuel energy – in other words, achieve the best conversion efficiency – will have a competitive advantage, and the more efficiently the Power Unit can convert fuel energy into kinetic energy, the more that advantage will grow.
Of course, efficiency has long been a key area of development in Formula One. In years gone by – where fuel usage has not been limited – the advantage lay in weight saving. Put simply, the less fuel you carried, the lighter – and faster – the car; particularly at the start of the race. For 2014, however, the race fuel allowance has been fixed at a maximum of 100 kg, compared to a typical race fuel load of around 150 kg in 2013. To complete the same race distance at similar speeds, the Power Unit must become over 30% more efficient, a challenge which demands significant new technologies.
Part of the efficiency gain comes from the V6 ICE; a smaller capacity ‘down-sized’ engine running at lower speeds than its predecessor. The power output – and therefore efficiency – is enhanced by turbocharging, allowing additional power to be extracted from the same quantity of fuel energy. The really clever part, though, comes in the form of the ERS Hybrid system.
In 2014, there will be up to seven possible energy journeys to re-use energy within the vehicle. The target: to achieve the same power output – around 750 hp – using around one third less fuel. Areas of ‘familiar’ technology (bore size, crankshaft centre line, etc.) have been specified but technical freedom has been left in the areas likely to generate gains in overall efficiency. It s a formula designed to encourage innovation in the pursuit and development of cutting-edge technologies that are ultimately relevant to the everyday motorist.
Technological Advancement
As the pinnacle of competitive motorsport, Formula One has always carried a responsibility for developing new technologies which push the boundaries of performance; both within the sport itself and ultimately feeding down into the systems found in road-going vehicles. Generally speaking, however, regulation changes have traditionally been implemented to limit factors such as speed – for safety reasons – and costs. The 2014 rules by contrast have been designed first and foremost to encourage innovation and new technology.
Of course, efficiency has always walked hand-in-hand with development from a performance perspective. By the end of the V8 era for example, cars could complete a race distance using over 10% less fuel than they did at the start of the V8 era in 2006. During the early development phases of KERS in 2007, the system weighed in at over 100 kg and worked at a thermal efficiency level of 39%. By the end of the 2012 season the units weighed just 24 kg, but were capable of 80% thermal efficiency levels.
In other words, Formula One development enabled a twelve-fold increase in power density from KERS systems; the impact of which has filtered down into Hybrid systems used by the everyday motorist. This rate of development – while impressive and relevant in its own right – has come as somewhat of a by product to the ultimate goal of faster lap time, but this has now fundamentally changed. Taking the new Hybrid system as an example, the lessons learned from the previous generation KERS system may have formed the foundation for the new ERS but make no mistake; this is a significant step forward in both absolute power and also in duty cycle.
While the permitted maximum power of the MGU-K has increased from 60 to 120 kW compared with that of KERS – a feat theoretically achievable through using two of the previous motors in tandem – the electric motor must now propel the car for around 30 seconds per lap as opposed to just seven.
With only five motors permitted per driver each season in contrast to a previously unregulated quantity, reliability as well as effectiveness of these systems will be absolutely crucial. KERS may have provided the bedrock, but this represents a major technological journey necessitating innovation and new solutions to achieve the necessary combination of performance and reliability.
Efficiency Equals Performance
PETRONAS: Technical Partner for Fluid Technology Solutions
Since the modern era of the Silver Arrows began in 2010, PETRONAS has been the team’s Fluid Technology Solutions Partner, maximising the potential of lubricant and fuel technology to provide differentiated performance. For 2014, this relationship has been significantly enhanced, with PETRONAS and the technical teams in Brackley and Brixworth working hand in hand to develop a high performance racing machine within the new parameters of the FIA regulations. If the Power Unit is the heart of the new Silver Arrow, its lifeblood is the tailor-made fuel and lubricant developed by PETRONAS’ technology.
This year, fuel energy density has become one of the controlling performance parameters for the sport and improving efficiency is now fully aligned with improving performance. In this context, lubricants and fuels have a crucial role to play in a number of different ways. PETRONAS technologists have applied their expertise – honed through optimising PETRONAS Syntium for turbocharged, direct fuel injection engines in everyday cars – to design and codevelop new lubricants to meet the new challenges posed by the Power Unit.
A key challenge is the down-sizing of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) from a V8, 2.4 litre configuration to a V6, 1.6 litre configuration. The smaller ICE and its increased power per litre mean that the new engine runs hotter. Oil thins at higher temperatures, and thus a hotter engine needs a thicker oil to stop metal components from rubbing together and failing.
However, the hotter conditions and reduced quantity of oil in the ICE (reduced from almost seven litres for the V8 to fewer than three litres for the V6) also mean that the oil must contribute more to cooling the engine. This requires thinner, faster flowing oil.
Additionally, the regulation changes restrict the quantity of fuel that can be consumed per race to 100 kg, which means that the oil needs to help conserve energy by minimising friction. Again, this requires thinner oil. In order to meet these complex and contradicting requirements, the new engine oil for the 2014 car is a precisely balanced mixture of advanced, thinner synthetic base oils to help cooling and polymer viscosity boosters (which kick-in at higher temperatures) to thicken the oil. Friction-reducing oil components – which make it easier for metal surfaces to slide past each other – have also been used to improve overall fuel economy.
Another consideration is that the higher temperatures also make it more likely that the oil itself will stop working properly. High performance additives have been included to stop the oil from breaking down under these extreme conditions.
Energy losses in the gearbox can also have a significant impact on fuel economy. To address this, PETRONAS technologists have also produced precision gearbox lubricants for the 2014 car to ensure that energy losses in the transmission are kept to a minimum, whilst making sure that the gearbox is protected from failure.
With regard to fuel, a direct injection turbocharged ICE has special requirements in terms of fuel characteristics: for example, it is very important that the injector nozzles are not blocked by deposits that come from the fuel. On top of that, the limits set by the FIA with regard to maximum fuel allocation (100 kg) and flow rate (100 kg/hr) mean that every single component in the fuel has to contribute to performance.
PETRONAS scientists have developed a new fuel for the 2014 Power Unit molecule-by-molecule, balancing characteristics such as energy density, octane number and volatility with careful consideration of the mandatory fraction of the fuel that must be of bio-origin. This poses a unique challenge in itself, as some of the best components for delivering high, smooth power are also those that likely lead to deposit build-up in injector nozzles. An extensive development programme involving chemists and engineers testing new fuels in real engines has resulted in a new generation fuel for the V6 that promises to deliver a significant gain in performance.
The contribution of PETRONAS in delivering total Fluid Technology Solutions has been essential to the delivery of the 2014 Power Unit. Never before in the history of Formula One have a Power Unit and its lifeblood been developed so closely. In meeting a challenge almost diametrically opposed to that of the V8 engine, the PETRONAS technical partnership will be an integral factor in success.
While the Power Unit itself may be seen as the most fundamental challenge of the new regulations, the resulting influence this has on the remaining elements of a car has required a comprehensive redesign of every system affected by the Power Unit.
The gearbox for instance requires an all-new design, with eight forward gears and one reverse. Where previously gear ratios could be optimised at each race weekend to suit the particular demands of a circuit, a single ratio choice must now be nominated before the start of each season. While the broader torque band of the turbocharged V6 configuration makes this less of an issue, it is still crucial to get this right if the driver is to maximise corner speed and eventual top speed down the straights.
The main concern however is endurance, with the gearbox itself required to last for six events (compared to five in 2013). This includes the ratios themselves, which previously could be changed for every event.
While crankshaft speed has dropped, along with the number of cylinders subjecting loads onto the crankshaft, input into the crankshaft is fundamentally different; with large quantities of torque and different oscillations. Producing a reliable unit which can deliver power efficiently from the Power Unit to the road will be of great importance.
Stopping power is another area under increased scrutiny. To compensate for the additional power generated under braking through the MGU-K, teams are now permitted to use an electronically controlled brake-by-wire system at the rear of the car, managed by the ECU.
However, with far less braking done through the rear wheels due to the increased quantity of kinetic energy being recovered from the rear axle, a conventional balance adjustment system would see considerable shifts in brake balance. While the brake-by-wire system is beneficial in managing such fluctuations, ensuring it works effectively is not only safety critical, but also crucial to performance in terms of allowing the driver to maximise the potential from the brakes.
Finally, weight is a key factor in performance. While the regulations stipulate a new maximum weight limit for the car of 690 kg – up from 642 kg in 2013 – this is now far more difficult to achieve. The Power Unit itself must have a minimum weight of 145 kg, while the additional cooling requirements of both the turbocharger and Hybrid systems only add to the challenge.
Fundamentally, there are two key elements to a fast Formula One car: having the most power possible to accelerate down the straight, plus good mechanical and aerodynamic performance to allow for quick cornering. The 2014 regulations bring with them a new set of challenges not only relating to the more visually obvious elements of the car, but more fundamentally in terms of packaging.
Starting with the most obvious visual change, the reduced width of the front wing – down from 1,800 mm to 1,650 mm – has a sizeable effect on aerodynamics, as this defines the flow of air over the entire vehicle. Moving further back, rear end grip has been directly affected by the loss of exhaust blowing; a significant source of performance over the past few years. This is a consequence of the fixed location and positioning of the single, central exit tailpipe, with the challenge now lying in how best to compensate for that loss and achieve the same levels of driveability from the car.
At the very tail of the car, a 10% reduction in the size of the top-rear wing ‘box’ – down from a maximum height of 220 mm to 200 mm – will result in teams running a specification of rear wing throughout the year that would previously have been reserved for lower downforce circuits such as Spa. Removal of the lower rear wing and its direct influence on the diffuser also has an effect. The removal of one element from a previously co-dependent trio of the floor, lower wing and upper wing results in notably different air flow at the rear of the car.
Hidden from view, but equally important, is the integration of the Power Unit and related systems into the chassis. The Power Unit itself takes a completely different shape, while more hybrid systems, a more complex exhaust system, plus the intercooler required for the pressure charging system, are all contributing factors to the cooling requirements of the car. Managing heat is not only necessary in terms of car integrity, but also performance and efficiency.
For example, if heat can be saved in the exhaust primaries between the engine and the turbocharger, this can potentially be recovered through the MGU-H, leading to increased energy harvesting and an overall efficiency gain.
Two opposing influences thereby exist; one focused on ensuring that each of these components operates within an optimal temperature range, the other on packaging the cooling systems in such a way as not to detract from the aerodynamic efficiency of the car.
New Ethos, New Challenges
Changes in technology almost inevitably risk reliability. When it comes to the introduction of something entirely new, however, the challenge is doubled and the risk equally so. This has always been the way in Formula One – it s in the spirit of motor racing – but while the knife-edge between performance and reliability has always existed, for 2014 its band of tolerance is far more of an unknown.
Introducing an entirely new concept such as a turbocharger with electric motors connected, for example, is as much of a risk to reliability as it is a challenge. Where previously a KERS failure might have meant the difference between victory and a minor points finish, each component of the Power Unit – from the ICE to the turbocharger and ERS – is so intrinsically linked that complications with one will invariably result in a rapid fall through the order, or worse a non-finish. While it has always been the case that a machine is only as strong as its individual parts, this rings all the more true in 2014.
Although clearly of significant importance previously, maximising track time during practice sessions will be absolutely crucial in terms of working with the driver to make sure fuel consumption targets are met, and working with the car to ensure every component is capable of enduring increased demands on life cycle. While this has always been an integral part of testing, it will now be absolutely essential; and just as important as chasing the ultimate lap time.
Far from affecting a single race, any failure can potentially have a significant impact on the champion ship as a whole. According to article 28.4 of the FIA Sporting Regulations, should a driver use more than five of any one of the six Power Unit elements – i.e. the ICE, MGU-K, MGU-H, ES, Turbocharger or Control Electronics – a grid place penalty will be imposed upon him at the first event during which each additio nal element is used, defined as follows:
• Replacement of a complete Power Unit – driver must start the race from the pit lane;
• The first time a sixth of any of the elements is used – 10 grid place penalty;
• The first time a sixth of any of the remaining elements is used – five grid place penalty;
• The first time a seventh of any of the elements is used – 10 grid place penalty;
• The first time a seventh of any of the remaining elements is used, and so on – five grid place penalty.
If the grid penalty imposed cannot be taken in full at one event, the remainder of the penalty is carried over to the following race weekend.
Aside from the more obvious technological obstacles, discipline – both in terms of team and driver – also forms one of the biggest barriers to reliability. From a team perspective, with such a vast quantity of time spent focusing on new elements of the car, it could prove all too easy to overlook the basics. As has become increasingly evident over time, it takes more to winning races than pure speed. Intelligent race management from the drivers – whether it be tyre management or energy management – will be an even bigger key to success in 2014.
Same Ethos, New Challenges
While not as obvious to the naked eye as pure driving talent, it is an equally important component of success. Get it right and the rest is in the hands of both the driver and the racing gods. Get it wrong and the efforts of an entire team can turn to dust.
Tyres will be an area of intense focus: their performance and degradation will be the major race strategy drive. With the Power Unit developing significantly more torque than its V8 predecessor, coupled with reduced downforce levels from revised aerodynamic regulations, including the lack of exhaust blowing, Pirelli has worked to design tyres suited to these new demands.
From a team perspective, models of tyre performance built up throughout previous years must be rebuilt from scratch, leaving teams to make educated guesses as to exactly how they will perform early on. The challenge for Pirelli as the supplier will be to provide a tyre that can cope with the demands of the new cars but also allow them to be raced hard.
While not to the extent seen during the early V10 era – where specialised, high performance engines were designed exclusively for qualifying – the balance between qualifying and race performance will be a key consideration. The 100 kg fuel allowance will be the limiting factor on race day, but this is not a consideration during qualifying, where the 100 kg/hr maximum fuel flow rate stands as the limiting factor.
Where deltas in pace were reasonably narrow in 2013, this balance of performance is now a question of fundamental design philosophy. A team may have the ability to dominate on Saturday should they design a car targeting ultimate one lap pace, but this level of performance may come at the price of reduced efficiency on Sunday.
In the race itself, the driver will play an even more crucial role in the successful outcome of race strategy, as more versatility will be required to adapt to different situations. The potential fastest lap from a car will be vastly different to what can be achieved consistently during the race, depending on whether the driver is in clean air, attacking or defending. Taking a chance to overtake may well give track position, but the extra energy required to do so will need to be recovered later in the race to meet targets. When defending track position, the temptation will equally be to keep the opponent behind at all costs, but this may ultimately have the same end result.
Evidently, drivers will have to think more carefully about where and when to pass, and whether defending a position is worthwhile at any given stage of the race. Furthermore, if – as some have predicted – the new rules see a wide competitive spread between teams, this will likely contribute to more innovative and aggressive strategies. Bigger performance gaps generally decrease the downside of risk-taking and increase the potential rewards, encouraging the race strategists to attempt more extreme ways of attempting to win races.
Aside from regular shuffling within the order as drivers shift between modes of attack and optimum race efficiency, a host of last-gasp passing manoeuvres could well spice up the final laps of a race, given the potential for some cars to slow dramatically towards the end to conserve fuel and see the flag.
Formula One in 2014 presents a fresh set of challenges to designers, engineers, drivers and spectators alike, with the intricacies of this new era for the sport adding to the keen sense of anticipation ahead of a new season.
As has been the case throughout generations of Formula One, the introduction of new rules serves to encourage innovation and showcase the sport as the cutting-edge of new technology; adding a level of intrigue which is relevant not only for the interest of spectators, but the automotive industry as a whole.
Ultimately, the smartest driver in the quickest car will be successful in 2014, which remains true to the fundamental challenge of racing. What the new regulations represent beyond that however, is the next phase of an evolutionary process that continues to position Formula One at the heart of contemporary technology, and truly puts the ‘motor’ back into ‘motorsport’.
